The evaluation was done either consciously or not, before doing anything from the simple to the complex. As an example of "a housewife who shops the market before deciding to bid has made the measurement and valuation. The efforts of this mother for, obtain information about goods to be purchased correctly and accurately in accordance with the experience and knowledge, conducted by: seen, held, touched, kissed, etc.. After it is done, it was decided which one is selected and what is not to further determine which ones are purchased and which are not purchased.
Since human beings have human uses and valuation measurement in everyday life, but to determine the appliance can not be known exactly.
Since the days of Prophet Noah has been the introduction of the measures. Noah mentioned that the prophet had commanded his followers to make a boat with a size of 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide and 30 cubits high. Size cubits was along from elbow to tip of middle finger / about 21 inches. (Gilbert Saex: 1980).
Our ancestors use of limbs as a measure because it is easily obtained and used for practical purposes according to the desired destination.
In the development of the body no longer meets several needs, so people started to think about measuring tools, so that now many measuring tools have a lot to be found by humans both physical and non physical.
Non-physical activities such as measurements in the field of social sciences and psychology. According to research experts use tests as a measurement has been carried out since time immemorial. In the book Babylon Jephthah told the use of tests. This test is to find people who at that time Efhiamintes menjadai their enemies. Efhiamintes people can not pronounce the eloquent letters (sh), so that can know their enemy or not. The tester was asked to say "shibolith" if not fluent or not it could mean people Efhiamintes later was beheaded.
From the story above it is concluded that the test results to determine the fate or death of one's life. In china according to research experts use "testing" or penggujian formally been used since 2200 years BC. Dobuis as written by the emperors in China to do "penggujian" against the officials terrace every 3 years. The purpose of this activity is to determine the level of their readiness to perform tasks in accordance with its responsibilities. Besides testing for the upper echelons emperor also menggunanakan tests as a selection tool for selecting the candidates, the test includes: writing, arithmetic, music, use the arrows, ride horses and perform religious ceremonies.
In Europe the use of selection tests for potential interest of employees has been used since the 1850s and in America since the 19th century has developed various tests in the field of psychology. In Indonesia the use of test for interest in education has been used since the Dutch government established schools for the people to their interests, and several, and since last few decades the use of tests for various purposes has been used widely.
Understanding Measurement, Evaluation and Testing
Understanding Measurements
Measurement is an attempt to obtain any information about an object or whatever by using specific measures. This is according to an opinion stating that "the so-called measurement is an attempt to understand the situation as it is, measurements can be data about something" (Director General of Higher Education Department of Education, 1981: 7). Meanwhile, Robert L. Ebel and David A. Frisbie (1986) said the measure is a process of giving numbers to the members of an object or person on an individual basis with the aim of distinguishing characteristics of the levels they are measured, while Gilbert Sax (1980: 9) measurement is the use of the numbers on the attributes of a characteristics of a person, event or object according to a clear formulation or rules.
From some of these definitions it appears that the measurement contains two main meanings of numbers and existence of certain rules. In general it can be concluded that the measurement is an attempt to obtain information on an object as it is by using numbers or scale by using certain rules.
The figures from the measurement results can be divided into 4 levels (level of measurement), namely:
Nominal Scale
At the level of nominal scale of measurement is a number that has no meaning more or less or just mempenyai significance as a label or alternate names or groups as well. Examples of its use as the number houses, rooms, motor vehicles. For example, a house with a house number with the numbers one (1) does not mean that the house is best compared to other homes with house numbers greater than one (1).
Ordinal Scale
At the level of this measurement in addition has a meaning of the name also has a sense of order and that one has a deeper meaning than others, but jaral or intervals are not equal to one another. For example on the order of the championship where one must rank above the rank two and so on, so the champion who berangking one has advantages over the berangking champion two and so on,
Interval Scale
On a scale interval that number has a meaning other than the name or class and the order has the same distance. This scale has no absolute zero, while zero is known at the level of measurement is only an agreement dipembuatan gauge. Therefore it has no zero can not be compared.
An example of interval scale is the result of test or exam scores. For example a student who scored zero on a subject, does not mean he does not know anything about that lesson, it's just repetition time with specific questions she failed, but maybe he will be successful if replicated with other questions.
Ratio Scale
Scale ratio is a number that has meaning, names, sequence and the same distance, also have absolute zero. Because of the scale ratio is comparable, so that all operations can be applied to the count. Examples of the scale ratio is the weight, age, height, length, distance between two words, etc..
Understanding Evaluation / Assessment
In the measurement process we tried to find information about the state of an object is measured by both people, objects, events or other objects quantitatively as it is. At this stage the measurement information obtained by the coarse data that have not been given meaning or not meaningful. To be more meaningful then the measurement results are processed further.
The notion of valuation is in accordance with the opinion which states: "The valuations are all attempts to compare the results of that measurement of something material or standard of comparison." (Director General of Higher Education Department of Education, 1987: 7).
Sedangkam by (Gilbert Sax 1980: 18) states: "Evaluation is a process for making decisions or values based on various observations (measurements) based on the background of appraisal practice."
According to (Gronlund, 1981: 6) states: "The assessment is a systematic process to determine how far the learning objectives can be achieved by students. In this case the target using a comparator study, which compared the learning outcomes achieved by students.
From the various opinions can be concluded that the assessment is the process of decision making based on the information the results of measurements to determine how much students can achieve learning objectives. Thus assessment is always quantitative, and quantitative measurement always.
Testing (testing)
Testing is a series or set of tasks to students diberikab containing the test material to obtain information about the characteristics or specific attributes of each item where there are tasks that are considered correct answers.
While Gilbert Sax (1980: 13) states that the test is a task (task) or a set of tasks that used to obtain systematic observations about an attribute of the result of educational or psychological nature. Another expert stated that the test is a systematic procedure for observing the behavior of a person and describe the behavior using a scale of numbers or a specific classification system (Cronbach, 1971: 26).
Systematic use of the term here means that the test is planned, developed, implemented, disekor, and processed and decided by the rules that have been defined explicitly.
Position Evaluation in the Education Process
In the process of learning and teaching teachers are faced with various circumstances, where they have to take decisions relating to the source of information for students who carried out carefully, fast, thorough and thoughtful. The source was a system of evaluation which will determine the fate / future students. Evaluation to determine the data after the learning ability of children, whether the teaching-learning process has reached the goals / objectives. The evaluation must be done quickly, precise, accurate, thoughtful and have to be careful, because it is very important to know the child.
The success of teachers in implementing the task is strongly influenced by the validity of decisions taken, by considering a variety of information obtained must be thorough, and accurate measures, and processed with the ways and techniques that are appropriate and collected with the appropriate tools as well. In this connection an expert said: "According to the intrinsic nature of teaching requires a lot of decisions made teachers, by school, by parents, by students themselves. Teacher decision can not be based on intuition, alleged that haphazard or habit. Teachers are required to assemble, analyze and use / utilize to make effective decisions that benefit students.
Teachers need the right information to decide correctly. Therefore, the ability in the field of measurement and assessment is one of the most important ability for teachers or educational staff. Teachers must know how to implement various aspects of measurement and assessment of all such as: preparing a test, member value, carry out and interpret intelligence tests and standardized achievement tests. Besides, they also must be able and understand how to implement, giving scores, and interpreting tests, teachers must have a higher ability to compare which one is better before using it.
General Conditions Evaluation
The right information is information that is useful and not misleading obtained through proper evaluation activities as well. To get the correct information evaluation and then the measuring instruments used must meet the following requirements:
Validity (Sahih)
Valid measurement tool is a measuring instrument that can measure what you want to be measured accurately and precisely. This is in accordance with the opinion stating:
"Validity is defined as the extent to the which measurement are useful in making decisions relevant to Toa given purpose" (Gilbert Sax, 1980: 289). That validity is defined as how far a measurement useful in making decisions in accordance with the goals set.
"The most is plistic definition of validity Is That it is the degree to the which a test measures what it is supposed to measured" (Gay L. R, 1983: 110). That is how far the validity of a test to measure what you want measured.
From the above opinion concluded that a valid test can occur when the test ngukur me what I want to be measured in accordance with the purpose of these tests. And expressed by Fernades (1984): "The test is valid for a purpose so a test cans not be valid in general." That test is valid for one purpose, so one test is invalid for all purposes (in general).
As for testing the validity of measuring instruments can be done by:
1. Content Validity (Content Validity)
The validity of this content based on a test that can measure a subject or a desired behavior. While understanding states that the test items that make up a test device should be a representative sample of the possibilities about which items can be made about the content or behavioral domains.
2. Validity of Concept (Construc Validity)
Validity aims to answer the question how far the questions the test can describe a concept or a particular theory with the words of the extent to which the measurement is considered to reflect a concept of a theory.
3. Empirical Validity / correlational (Selected Criterion Validity)
A measuring instrument is considered valid if it has a high correlation with another measure that is considered valid.validitas is divided into two namely:
Predictive Validity
A measuring instrument is valid if it is said in accordance with the circumstances that will come (yanga ability to come)
Empirical Validity (Concurrent Validity)
A measuring instrument is valid if it be said highly correlated with other measurements beyond the instruments.
In addition there are several factors that affect the validity of which are:
The correlation dapatdipengaruhi by the amount subject
Results of correlation is affected by the variability of test score results
Results of correlation is also influenced by the number of test items
b. Reliability
A measuring instrument is said to give reliable results if the "same" when measuring the same thing at different times and places.
Thus, a reliable measuring instrument will provide reliable results or consistent or reflect the true ability of students as measured, not by chance or luck. If the trade-utungan factor can be reduced to a minimum then the reliability will be high.
This is in accordance with the opinion (Gilbert Sax, 1980: 225) which states: "Reliability describes the extent to which measurements can be trusted to obtain a clear and steady. A reliable measurement if it can be said to reflect the true capabilities of what is measured not by coincidence.
Keep in mind here that no matter how high reliability measure in time is never obtained measurement results are really 100% the same. What is meant here is that a single measurement results highly correlated with other measurements.
In any measurement errors will occur whether caused by faulty measuring devices (constant errors) and mistakes caused by chance (random error). Because of these errors then the scores obtained from the measurement is not the actual scores, but the actual scores are sought after by mistake (error). Visually it can be seen in the following formula:
O = T + E
Where:
O = Obtained scores, the scores obtained from the measurement results
T = True scores, the scores that describe the ability of students when there is no measurement error.
E = Error is a measurement error.
True scores in fact was never obtained and therefore these scores is also called "scores hypothesis."
There are several ways to measure the reliability of measuring instruments, namely:
Technique halved
Technique halved ie test scores by dividing into two parts between the even and odd items, and then correlated. This technique to determine the internal-consistency of the items about which is the element of a test.
Retest technique
Retest technique that is by correlating the two measurements at different times. The same test is given twice in different times and the results correlated. This technique to determine the stability of a given after being some time.
Equivalent (parallel-equivalents)
To avoid the practical effect of students' test-taking experience as experienced re-testing techniques, it can be used parallel or equivalent forms.
In this case the teacher makes the equivalent of two test device is then given to students in the same time. Correlation of both instruments describing the reliability measure used.
Calculations to find the reliability of these techniques can be performed using the product-moment correlation statistic.
The formula:
c. Practicability
Terms of practicality or a test is whether a test can be carried out. A test is said to satisfy the requirements of practicality (praktibilitas) if:
Easy to implement and requires no equipment or supplies that are difficult to obtain.
Easy in terms of check or giving scores, then there are guidelines / instructions in a clear and detailed.
Does not give the cost of expensive, so a test in the implementation does not require much time, effort, and complex equipment that automatically inexpensive.
EVALUATION OF LEARNING
Function and Purpose of Evaluation of Learning Outcomes
One of the goals that must dilakukanoleh teacher evaluation is the evaluation of learning outcomes, in terms of function and purpose, the evaluation of learning outcomes have the following functions:
Diagnostic and Development / remedial
Diagnostic
One way to find out the difficulties faced by the students on the parts of the lessons that have been given then the teacher can use the "diagnostic test" this test should be made of teachers, because they who know about things that are taught. Thus diagnostic tests aim to find trouble or things that have not mastered the students to a lesson.
To be truly diagnostic test can detect the difficulties faced by students, then the diagnostic test must be made in such a way as to completely contain all the capabilities as stated in the learning objectives or include all the material in full. With this diagnostic test that covers all the material, it will be known at the part where a student can not answer properly.
Development / remedial
If most students fail to correctly answer a test item to something, then the teacher should explain once again, before moving to the next matter, if only there were some teachers who fail to provide justification for individual / specific, while others can do enrichment or deepening. In this way the children are less aware of something unknown and the issue may soon be repaired.
For The Selection
In all circumstances limited to the school often faced with a situation, which should take a decision acceptable to the student in a rational and fair.
To make keputusa a fair and acceptable to all parties then conducted tests, that can easily be known who has the right to choose and who fails.
The test used to select students from the prospective students who wish to enter a school should be able to predict the success of students after they received. Therefore the selection test must be able to distinguish or have "different high power" so as to differentiate, their potential and those with less potential.
To Increase Class (promotion)
Achievement test is a decisive factor in determining the student to follow the next lesson. One of the important things for students and for teachers is the problem of rising class. Determining whether someone is worthy to rise or stay the class is through the achievement test as stated in the form of report cards.
The value of report cards report cards is also a school reports delivered to parents, thus intertwined relationship of mutually beneficial cooperation for the progress of student learning.
To place (placement)
Function test results of another study was to determine (placement) in a learning programs often encounter the variation of the ability of students to a subject in order to provide the best possible service to students, teachers can hold grouping students by ability. As seen from the test results of their study.
With the existence of these groups, the teacher will be able to provide services in accordance with the child's ability, so it will obtain better results.
Objective Evaluation
Thus the objective evaluation of learning outcomes are:
Cognitive Domains
Bloom (1956) this cognitive divide into two parts:
The ability to remember information
Katogori is the lowest learning objectives are knowledge (knoledge)
Intellectual ability
Hierarchically as follows:
Ability to understand
Ability to apply
Ability to analyze
The ability to synthesize
Traffic rate
In some detail the cognitive evaluation target can be explained as follows
The ability of knowledge (knowledge: C1) to measure the results of this study questions the teacher can begin with the words operational, is defined, write, mention Etc.
The ability of understanding (comprehension = C2) to know this target-valuation teachers can use the words: distinguish, summarize, give examples, summarize, etc..
Ability to apply (application = C3) this goal can be evaluated by using the words: use of theory, concepts, formulas and principles.
Ability to analyze, (analization = C4) words that can be used to evaluate these capabilities include: describe, distinguish, separate, describe, and lower.
Ability mensitesis (synthesis = C5) which describes the behavior mensitesis capabilities include: categorize, mengkomindasikan, compose, assemble, reconstruct, edit, and revise.
The ability to evaluate (evaluation = C6), the words or terms that describe these capabilities are: to appreciate, criticize, decide, and judge the work.
Affective Domains (values and attitudes)
As the realm of affective cognitive ability is also divided into several levels, namely:
Reception (recieving)
The words that contain these aspects include: select, describe, follow, pointing.
Responding (responding)
Aspect or this level can be explained with the words: answers, help, memorize, write, vote.
Assessing (valuing)
words that contain these aspects include: complete, describe, distinguish, choose, and learn.
Organization (organization)
Depth of this domain can be expressed with words such as: arrange, alter, complete, conclude and explain.
Characterization (characterization)
The words that are relevant to this aspect include: apply, propose, influence, demonstrate, and use.
Domains Skills (psychomotor-domain)
Student learning outcomes after learning something besides his knowledge increases, the more positive attitude over skills also increases. Objective evaluation of learning outcomes in the form of skills is also very important, in order to obtain complete information on learning outcomes. In practice evaluation of learning outcomes in the form of these skills can be done with the "performance test" either in the form of process and outcome.
REFERENCES
Suharno, et al. 1995. Learning and Learning II. Surakarta: UNS Press.
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